Locus of control (LoC) is a fundamental concept in personality psychology that pertains to an individual’s beliefs about the extent to which they can control events affecting them. Introduced by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, LoC is a key construct within social learning theory and is widely applied in educational, clinical, organizational, and health psychology contexts (Rotter, 1966). It demarcates individuals into two primary categories: those with an internal locus of control, who believe that outcomes result from their own efforts and actions, and those with an external locus of control, who attribute outcomes to external forces such as fate, luck, or powerful others.
Rotter (1966) emphasized that LoC is a continuum rather than a dichotomy, and individuals may exhibit varying degrees of internality or externality in different contexts. Internals are more likely to engage in proactive behavior, take responsibility for successes and failures, and exhibit higher self-efficacy (Findley & Cooper, 1983). Externals, by contrast, often feel powerless in the face of circumstances, potentially leading to passivity and learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975).
Empirical studies support the adaptive advantages of internal LoC. For instance, internals typically demonstrate better academic performance due to their belief that effort influences grades (Findley & Cooper, 1983). In the workplace, individuals with internal LoC are associated with higher job satisfaction and performance, as they believe their contributions matter (Judge et al., 2002). In health psychology, an internal LoC is linked with better health outcomes, as individuals are more likely to engage in preventive behaviors and adhere to treatment regimens (Wallston et al., 1976).
However, the adaptiveness of internal versus external LoC is context-dependent. In uncontrollable situations, an external LoC may buffer psychological distress by reducing self-blame (Lefcourt, 1982). Additionally, cultural variables shape LoC orientation. Research shows that Western societies, emphasizing individualism, tend to foster internal LoC, while collectivist cultures may promote external explanations that reflect interdependence rather than helplessness (Cheng et al., 2013).
Modern research also explores the multidimensionality of LoC. Levenson (1973) proposed dividing external LoC into “powerful others” and “chance,” acknowledging that not all external sources are perceived equally. Moreover, the intersection of LoC with other constructs like self-efficacy, attribution styles, and optimism has refined its predictive power in psychological models (Bandura, 1997).
In sum, locus of control remains a pivotal construct in understanding motivation, behavior, and psychological resilience. While internality is generally associated with positive outcomes, the utility of either orientation depends on situational and cultural context. Ongoing research continues to reveal its nuanced role in shaping human agency and psychological functioning.
References:
- Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976
- Seligman, M. E. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
- Findley, M. J., & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(2), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.419
- Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalised self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80
- Wallston, K. A., Wallston, B. S., & DeVellis, R. (1976). Development of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scales. Health Education Monographs, 6(2), 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019817800600107
- Lefcourt, H. M. (1982). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Levenson, H. (1973). Multidimensional locus of control in psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41(3), 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035357
- Cheng, C., Cheung, S. F., Chio, J. H., & Chan, M. P. (2013). Cultural meaning of perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 152–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028596